Notes 9/15/09

The Toulmin Model of Argument: The Path to Writing Better Essays

Stephen Toulim (March 25,1922-)

• British born philosopher
• Currently Henry R Luke Professor of Multiethnic and Transitional Studies at USC
• Became frustrated with the outline of essays submitted to him while teaching and invented his own form of essay writing.

Just Like Trivial Prusuit

• The Tolmin Model consists of six main points.
• claim
• grounds
• warrant
• backing
• rebuttal/reservation
• qualification

But I like Smaller Numbers

• Good, so does the Toumlin Model
• We start understanding the three ain points of the model.

The Claim

• Essentially the statement being argued-the assertion the arguer would like to make and have accepted as true by the audience
• Even though this is the point from which the writer starts to formulate the argument, it is actually the conclusion of the argument (since it is what the audience should believe at the end)
• Everything in the argument relates back to the claim, if it doesn't relate it shouldn't be in the paper.
• Answers the question "what is the author trying to prove? what is the bottom line?"
• For Example:

1. You should use a hearing aid.
2. That dog is probably friendly.
3. You should send a birthday card to Mimi.
4. It is your turn to drive.
5. It looks like its going to rain.
6. Needle exchange programs should be abolished.

But I Like Variety

• Toulmin identifies three different types of claims.

1. Claims of fact
2. Claims of judgement/value
3. Claims of policy

• No type of claim is "better" than another (although they will be used differently)

Lets Play Matching

• What kind of claims are these?

1. That dog is probably friendly. (claim of judgement/value)
2. It looks like its going to rain. (fact)
3. Needle exchange programs should be abolished. (policy)

So Then, We're Agreed

• Not quite, you don't get to win without a fight
• Most of the time our perspectives are not immidietly accepted as truths-others will challege our claims forcing us to provide support.
• this is called grounds.

The Grounds

• This is the basis of real persuasion-the evidence/opinions/facts/patterns/examples you've gathered to bolster your claim.
• Answers the question "what information does the author need to prove his points?"

A Stroll Around All the Grounds

Commontypes of argumentive support

• Facts-vivid, real, identifiable, verifiable information
• Opinions- interpritations/reasoning (yours or that of an expert) of relative factual information
• Examples-for clarification and illustration of the facts. Explicitly stated, not infered.

Just the Facts Ma'am

• Obviously, factual data is a powerful argumentive weapon. Wielded against the unarmed, unprepared opponent a barrage of facts can be devastating. (Examples: detiled reports of specific events, statistics, facts)

Simple Examples

• Claim: It looks like it is going to rain.
• Grounds: The berometer is dropping.
• Claim: Needle exhange programs should be abolished.
• Grounds: Influences more drug use.
• By referencing a verifiable data source you can win your argument.

Your Opinion Matters

• You've been given conflicting information one this idea-on the one hand you've been told to express your ideas, while on the other hand you've been told to never use "I"
• Lets agree, opinions cannot exist without facts.
• Opinions are formed from facts, interpretation or misinterpretation
• Most claims involve an expression of interpretation, rather than pure fact.
• Opinions are nessacary as part of arguments grounds.
• Must select meaningful opinions (from oneself or and expert) and consider the audiences ability to distinguish them from hearsay or gossip.

Credibility

• We should trust opinions only of those who are trustworthy.

1. experts
2. authorities
3. endorsers
4. best friends
5. family
6. oneself

• Different arguments call for different sources of opinions

Emma Morton